Papers - The Long Ones

Contained within this blog are a few of the papers written while attending Regent. This is not a comprehensive collection; rather, it is a small represenation of my thoughts resulting from this education.

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Location: Chesapeake, Virginia, United States

I am pursuing my Bachelor of Science Degree at Regent University located in Virginia Beach, Virginia. I am recently married (8/6/05) to the love of my life, Laura. My wife Laura and I will probably start a family in the next couple of years, aiming for 1-4 children. At some point, I would like to own and operate a business, while teaching at a college or university. I enjoy good friends, good humor, and good times. I am an organizational freak that enjoys spending time alphabetizing, arranging, and organizing items in order to minimize storage space while maximizing availability.

Monday, August 07, 2006

The Meaning and Use of Parables in the Synoptic Gospels

The parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37, New Revised Standard Version) is a well-known story. When questioned about what one must do to inherit eternal life, Jesus replied:

A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell into the hands of robbers, who stripped him, beat him, and went away, leaving him half dead. Now by chance a priest was going down that road; and when we saw him, he passed by on the other side. So likewise a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan while traveling came near him; and when he saw him, he was moved with pity. He went to him and bandaged his wounds, having poured oil and wine on them. Then he put him on his own animal, brought him to an inn, and took care of him. The next day he took out two denarii, gave them to the innkeeper, and said, ‘Take care of him; and when I come back, I will repay you whatever more you spend.’” (Luke 10:30–35)
This parable illustrates both the dark, sinful side of human behavior, and the hope that people are fundamentally good. The Jewish religious leaders—the priest and the Levite—rejected the beaten man, yet the Samaritan, an outcast, helped the man tremendously. On the surface, this is a story about being a good neighbor. On a deeper level, the Samaritan embodies Jesus, an outcast in his own right, who was moved by mercy to help the man, much in the same way that Jesus helped countless others who could not help themselves (Walvoord & Zuck, 1985). This is a classic parable that both teaches a moral lesson and reveals the nature of Jesus. This paper will briefly define, describe and discuss the distribution of Jesus’ parables in the Synoptic Gospels, discuss how and why Jesus used parables, and explore the meaning and messages behind the parables as Jesus used them.

What is a Parable?

Although biblical scholars have poured over Jesus’ parables for centuries, there is only minor agreement of what actually constitutes a parable. There are loose definitions and those that are more restrictive; thus, to definitively define and describe what a parable is would be a lesson in futility. Regardless of this fact, this section will define, describe, and discuss the distribution of Jesus’ parables in the Synoptic Gospels.

Definition
There is great depth to parables. According to Gundry (2003), parables are nothing more than “extended figures of speech, often in story form” (p. 117). However, the English word parable derives from the Greek word parabolē, which means “something cast (bole) alongside (para) something else (Hedrick, 2004, p. 1), such as a fictitious story, cast alongside a particular truth. Parabolē has many more meanings and uses. For example, parabolēs can be used as “a proverb (Lk 4:23), a riddle (Mk 3:23), a comparison (Mt 13:33), a contrast (Lk 18:1-8), and both simple stories (Lk 13:6-9) and complex stories (Mt 22:1-14)” (Green & McKnight, 1992, p. 593).

Scholars disagree on the criteria by which a group of words become a parable. “There are thirty forms explicitly labeled parabolē…[and] there are at least forty parables on a more restricted definition, but as many as sixty-five” (Green & McKnight, 1992, p. 596) if one includes metaphoric items like the proverbial speck in the other’s eye (Matthew 7:3). Hedrick (2004) offers another definition and description of a parable that will serve this paper: “A parable is constructed as a brief, freely invented, narrative fiction, comprised of beginning, middle, and end, dramatizing a common human experience or some incident from nature” (p. 9).

Description
There is more than just the meaning of the word. Although many scholars do not use this classification system Green & McKnight (1992) offer four, often distinguished forms of parables: 1) “a similitude, which is an extended simile relating a typical and recurring event in real life”; 2) “an example story, which presents a positive or negative character (or both)…to be imitated or whose traits and actions are to be avoided”; 3) a parable, which is “an extended metaphor referring to a fictional event or events narrated in past time to express a moral or spiritual truth”; and 4) an allegory, which is a series of metaphors (p. 593).

Parables have a typical structure as well. Parables have the tendency to be balanced, brief, symmetrical, and vague (Green & McKnight, 1992). Parables “typically omit unnecessary descriptions and frequently leave motives unexplained and implied questions unanswered” (Green & McKnight, p. 594). Further, parables use everyday examples, but they are not necessarily realistic in nature. This unique combination makes parables intriguing, thought provoking, highly adaptable, and timeless.

Distribution
Jesus taught largely in parables. “Approximately one-third of Jesus’ teaching is in parables” (Green & McKnight, 1992, p. 594). There are eight parables found in all three gospels, and though Mark has 11 parables, only one—the Seed Growing Secretly (Mark 4:26–29)—is unique to his gospel; Matthew and Luke have 10 and 14 unique parables respectively (Green & McKnight). Through a restrictive definition, Green and McKnight attribute a total of 44 parables to the Synoptic Gospels, and two in John if one counts the Good Shepherd and the True Vine.

The Use of Parables in the Gospels

Quite possibly, the potential uses of parables number in the dozens. Though the exact reason or reasons Jesus used parables in his teachings throughout the Synoptic Gospels, parables are an effective means of communication. In addition, Jesus used parables to disseminate ethical truths and bring about social reform. Lastly, Jesus used parables to enlighten those who believed in him as the messiah, while simultaneously obscuring the truth from those who doubted.

Effective Communication
A common supposition about Jesus’ motives for using parables is that it is an effective way to teach and communicate higher order, yet simplistic moral truths. Parables as metaphorical stories ease the information transfer, especially moral lessons or other tacit concepts. In business, the most effective means of expressing abstract ideas is through figurative language and symbolism (Nonanka, 1991). Jesus used the same type of communication when teaching in parables. Groff and Jones (2003) delineate several key advantages to telling stories, each being quite useful for Jesus: Stories are memorable, encourage receptivity, focus on what matters, and are not entirely bound by logic.

However, Hedrick (2004) argues that since Jesus rarely explained his parables, “listeners were left with an open-ended narrative, subject to a variety of explanations” (p. 27). In addition, how people view themselves and their own lives may influence their interpretation. A 48-year-old man, and an 18-year-old woman, may have a drastically different interpretation of the parable of the Prodigal and His Brother (Luke 15:11–32).

Ethical Truths and Social Reform
Underscoring Jesus’ place in history as the Son of God, Jesus was also a great ethicist, who used parables to disseminate ethical truths and bring about social reform. The entire Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7) is a guide to how people should conduct their lives and behave toward each other when in a fruitful relationship with God (Walvoord & Zuck, 1985). This sermon contains three parables: 1) Wise and Foolish Builders (Matthew 7:24–27), 2) Father and Children’s Requests (Matthew 7:9–11), and 3) Two Doors (Matthew 7:13–14). It is highly probable that Jesus used parables to communicate ethical truths.

Jülicher, a prominent 19th-century New Testament scholar argued that parables express a moral truth. Jülicher believed that the parables contain a general moral code and were instructional in nature. For instance, the parable of the Barren Fig Tree (Luke 13:6–9) compares the story of a landowner threatening to cut down a fig tree that has not borne fruit for three years. According to Jülicher, the context within Luke 13:1–9 illustrates that people who do not bear fruit (repent) will be cut down (perish) (Hedrick, 2004). However, Hedrick criticizes Jülicher’s analysis, citing that he is essentially allegorizing—something Jülicher warns against—and that Jülicher should not tie this parable to the preceding passage (Luke 13:1–5). Since the parable also precedes Jesus healing a crippled woman, and a connection to that passage is unlikely, it is reasonable to assume Luke was applying it to the previous passage about repentance.

William Herzog, a late 20th-century New Testament scholar argued that Jesus’ parables propagated social reform (Hedrick, 2004). After a difficult time reconciling the parable of the Laborers in the Vineyard (Matthew 20:1–16), Herzog studied the socioeconomic conditions of Palestine in the first century, during Jesus’ time. Herzog (1994) concluded that parables are essentially “earthly stories with heavy meanings” aimed at “break[ing] the spiral of violence and cycle of poverty created by exploitation and oppression” (p. 9). Further, Herzog cited that Jesus was “executed as a political subversive and crucified between two social bandits… [because] he was a threat to Roman overlords’] economic and political interests (p. 9). Under these conclusions Herzog viewed parables as an impetus for social reform.

Herzog’s social reformative view of the parables has some merit. God clearly wants people to care for the poor (Deuteronomy 10:17–19, 24:19–22; Matthew 25:31–46; James 2:1–13), and that there is punishment for those who do not (Amos 4:1–3; Isaiah 1:21–25, Matthew 25:31–36). Jesus using his parables to teach about economic matters such as these is not unimaginable. Shortly before Jesus was crucified, he turned over the tables of the moneychangers in protest of their greed. In contrast, Hedrick (2004) points out that while in general Herzog’s theory of parables has support concerning the parable of the Laborers in the Vineyard, most parables cannot be seen through this economic filter. Further, Hedrick argues, “A theory how the parables of Jesus work must accommodate all the parables in order to be completely convincing” (p. 76). However, this all-or-nothing criticism is unjustified. Jesus was a great teacher with many different lessons. “When rightly understood, the parables help us to see how extraordinary a wisdom teacher Jesus really was, and how revolutionary, in the best sense of the word, was the content of what he taught and to which he bore witness by his life and death” (Keating, 1997, p. 11).

Reserve the Truth for the Faithful
A multitude of New Testament scholars and millions of others have attempted to interpret Jesus’ parables using a variety of methods. Most agree that Jesus had something important to say. So why would Jesus Christ speak in parables? The Synoptic Gospels provide clues. When Jesus’ disciples asked why he taught in parables (Matthew 13:10–17; Mark 4:10–12; Luke 8:9–10), Jesus replied, “in order that ‘they may indeed look, but not perceive, and may indeed listen, but not understand; so that they may not turn again and be forgiven’” (Mark 4:12). But what does this mean? According to Gundry (2003), Jesus spoke in parables in order “(1) to obscure the truth judgmentally from outsiders, who have not responded in faith to his plain speech, and (2) with interpretation to clarify the truth rewardingly for insiders, who have responded in faith to his plain speech” (p. 136). Jesus distinguishes between outsiders (nonbelievers) and insiders (believers) (Gundry, 2003). The insiders were those who believed in him and were spiritually discerning, while the outsiders, the “others who were not responding to Jesus’ message of the kingdom would not understand the parable (cf. 1 Cor. 2:14)” (Walvoord & Zuck, 1985).

Jesus reserved the meanings and messages behind the parables for the faithful. What is this truth which Jesus obscures from some but not others? Jesus may have used parables to obscure the truth about the kingdom of God. “To you it has been given to know the secrets of the kingdom of God, but to them it has not been given” (Luke 8:10). Jesus rewarded those who believed in him with the truth, while those who did not, did not receive this knowledge.

The Meaning of the Parables in the Gospels

Literary and biblical scholars, nonprofessionals, Christians, and atheists alike have invested immeasurable time and resources searching for the meaning within Jesus’ parables. Whether one views Jesus’ parables through an allegorical, existential, structural, or a purely literary lens, undoubtedly his teachings have affected millions. This section will take a cursory look at interpreting parables through a variety of methods, and the meaning within the parables, including people’s response to the kingdom of God as well as its character, value, and messages.

Interpretation of Parables
Throughout history, there have been various ways scholars have interpreted parables, and not all of them have been particularly cogent. Before we can look at the meaning of parables in the gospels, understanding interpretation is necessary. Allegorizing dominated interpretation for years. In addition, existential, structural, literary interpretations, and comparisons with Jewish parables have been popular methods of interpretation as well.

Though popular, interpreters have not always appropriately allegorized. Allegorizing is “the interpretive procedure of reading into the parables a theology that Jesus did not intend” (Green & McKnight, 1992, p. 592). Until Jülicher, a German New Testament scholar, entered the scene near the end of the 19th century allegorizing Jesus’ parables was the most prominent method of interpretation (Green & McKnight). One “classic example of overallegorizing a parable” (Gundry, 2003, p. 118) is Augustine’s interpretation of the Good Samaritan, in which Augustine attributes theological significance to nearly every aspect of the parable.

After allegorization dominated the mainstream of interpretation, other methods surfaced. Between mid 1930s and the late 1960s, C. H. Dodd and J. Jeremias were influential in stripping away the allegorical features and viewing the parables in a historical or realized eschatological manner (Green & McKnight, 1992). However, not everyone was satisfied with these methods and this dissatisfaction spurred existentialist, structuralist, and literary approaches.

According to Green & McKnight (1992), existentialists’ interpretations highlighted the parables as a way for Jesus to express his understanding of his existence, citing the parables’ call for a decision as evidence of an inherent present tense. On the other hand, structuarlists were not so concerned with history or intention; rather, they “sought to compare the movements, motives, functions, oppositions and resolutions within texts” (Green and McKnight, p. 592).

Beyond history, intention, and structure, literary critics have tended to employ a “reader-response approach in which a text’s meaning is determined by the interaction of the reader with the text” (Green & McKnight, 1992, p. 593). Alternatively, others have compared Jesus’ parables to Jewish parables. Most notably, Flusser, a Jewish New Testament scholar “challenged the conclusions not only of Jülicher, but also of Jeremias, of the reader-response approaches and of much of New Testament scholarship” (Green & McKnight, p. 593).

Simultaneously and haphazardly embracing all of these methods of interpretation would be perilous. Though allegorization has merit, scholars should monitor this temptation carefully, lest they end up like Augustine. The existentialist view seems to have as little popularity as a purely existentialist worldview in modern society. Structuralism may have its place in terms of hobby or exploration, but ignoring history and intention seems irresponsible and impractical. Literary interpretation leaves too much to one’s imagination, which could elicit a multitude of unintelligible and inaccurate analyses.

The best way to interpret a parable seems to incorporate a mixture of these approaches. Looking at parables as allegory seems to be a good basis for interpretation, since allegory as a literary form is valid, and the trouble was overallegorizing, not the literary form itself (Green & McKnight, 1992). In addition, maintaining a sense of history and culture, will add understanding and depth to an interpretation; however, existentialist and reader-response approaches are best left to hobbyists. The many and significant nuances in the interpretations of Jesus’ parables is represented by the plethora of books on Jesus’ parables (Shillington, 1997). Ultimately, regardless of the approach, its popularity, advantages, or disadvantages, people must decide how to interpret Jesus’ parables for themselves.

The Kingdom of God
The meaning of the kingdom of God permeates Jesus’ teaching and most certainly his parables. Many parables including the Sower, the Seed Growing Quietly, the Mustard Seed, and the Treasure and the Pearl illustrate different aspects of the kingdom of God. These parables and others provide the basis of the primary meaning buried within the parables, encompassing people’s response to the kingdom of God as well as its character and value.

The parable of the Sower (Mark 4:3–9; Matthew 13:3–9) represents “people’s response to the message of the kingdom of God” (Green & McKnight, 1992, p. 424). The message of the kingdom of God fell on the deaf ears of many people including the Pharisees and Sadducees (Hunter, 1983), who the failed crops sown in the thorns represent. The key message to the people is be good soil for the word, so that it can grow and one can “…bear fruit, thirty and sixty and a hundredfold” (Mark 4:20).

The parable of the Seed Growing Quietly (Mark 4:26–29) represents the subtle, inconspicuous character of the kingdom of God (Green & McKnight, 1992). Like a seed, which grows without a farmer’s knowledge of exactly how, the kingdom of God grows slowly by night and day. This is in stark contrast to the Jewish expectation that God would bring the kingdom by “military deliverance from Roman domination” (Gundry, 2003, p. 62).

The parables of the Mustard Seed (Mark 4:30–32; Matthew 13:31–32; Luke 13:18–19) and the Yeast (Matthew 13:33; Luke 13:20–21) represent “the immense growth of the kingdom of God from an insignificant beginning” (Green & McKnight, 1993, p. 424). A mustard seed is the smallest of seeds, yet when fully-grown it becomes the largest of plants (Walvoord & Zuck, 1985). Likewise, only a small amount of yeast is necessary for an entire batch of bread to rise. Jesus proclaimed, “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has come near; repent, and believe in the good news” (Mark 1:15). Jesus’ proclamation is similar to the seed and yeast—nobody could imagine how much was going to occur from such a small beginning.

The parables of the Treasure (Matthew 13:44) and the Pearl (Matthew 13:45) represents “the inestimable value of the kingdom of God, for which people must be prepared to give up everything” (Green & McKnight, 1993, p. 424). In the former, someone who finds a treasure buried in the field deems is so valuable that he sells all his worldly possessions in order to buy the field and gain possession of this treasure. In the latter, the merchant sold all he had to purchase one magnificent pearl of great value. In each of these parables, the treasure is the kingdom of God having such great value that the finders immediately give up all they have to obtain it, which demonstrates the immeasurable value of the kingdom of God.

In addition to the character and nature of the kingdom of God, Jesus used parables to communicate messages about the kingdom of God including God’s mercy for sinners, the assurance of the inevitable harvest, the imminence of catastrophe, and the current challenges facing Jews and Gentiles alike. Jeremias (1972) analyzed the parables of Jesus while taking a close look at these messages and drawing upon sound scriptural evidence for his interpretations.

God has mercy upon sinners; this is the message represented within the parable of the Prodigal and His Brother (Luke 15:11–24). Jeremias (1972) would rename, “the parable of the Father’s Love,” (p. 128) since the father is the central figure, who forgives his son after his son had “sinned against heaven and before [the father]” (Luke 15:21). In response to his repentance, the father forgives his son and rejoices at his return. In this parable, the father represents God’s mercy by forgiving sinners for their transgressions against him (Jeremias).

Jesus also used parables to express the assurance of the inevitable harvest and the imminence of catastrophe. When viewing the advent of the kingdom of God as a harvest, the parables of the Mustard Seed, the Yeast, and the Seed Growing Quietly, taken together assure us the harvest will come (Jeremias, 1972). In light of Jesus’ warnings of his return (Matthew 24:40–44), the parables of the Barren Fig Tree, the Rich Fool (Luke 12:13–21), and the Sheep and Goats (Matthew 25:31–46) when taken together and viewed as warnings “show that Jesus is not thinking of the inevitable death of the individual as the impending danger, but of the approaching eschatological catastrophe, and the coming Judgment” (Jeremias, 1972, p. 165).

Taking into consideration the inevitable harvest and the imminent catastrophe now is the time to rise to the challenge at hand—make the choice, believe, and repent. Upon revisiting the parable of the Fig Tree, the audience is left with the possibility that proper care in the fourth season after three years of neglect would not be sufficient to save the tree, though the fig tree’s fate is never revealed. If the tree does not produce fruit in the fourth year, the vintner will have it destroyed. Likewise, sinners must repent and bear fruit (i.e., of the Spirit) or perish.

Conclusion
In the final analysis, exactly why Jesus taught in parables is unknown; there seems to be many uses for them. It is true, parables viewed as stories are a great way to transfer information mainly because people can remember them easily, parables can communicate great truths in a simple way, and they tend to focus on what intrinsically matters to people. There is strong evidence posed by respected New Testament scholars, Jülicher and Herzog, that this was more likely a byproduct of a larger goal—dispelling ethical truths and igniting social reform. In the end, however, the Synoptic Gospels demonstrate that while Jesus taught in parables to the crowds, he reserved the parables’ true meanings for those who believed in him in faith.

The meanings and messages behind Jesus’ parables are many and complex. Masterfully, Jesus illustrated people’s response to the kingdom of God, its innate character, and its immeasurable value. In addition, Jesus illustrated inherent messages within the parables of the kingdom of God including God’s mercy for sinners, the assurance of the inevitable harvest, the imminence of catastrophe, and the current challenges, such as the necessary repentance to enter God’s kingdom. Whether one believes they are simple stories or profound ethical truths, geared toward social reform or the coming kingdom of God, the meaning use of parables in the gospels have simultaneously perplexed and enlightened people for nearly two millennia, and will probably do so until Jesus returns.

References

Green, J. B., & McKnight, S. (Eds.). (1992). Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Groff, T. R., & Jones, T. P. (2003). Introduction to knowledge management: KM in business. Amsterdam: Butterworth Heinemann.

Gundry, R. H. (2003). A survey of the New Testament. (4th ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Hedrick, C. W. (2004). Many things in parables: Jesus and His modern critics. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.

Hunter, A. M. (1983). The parables for today. London: SCM Press.

Jeremias, J. (1972). The parables of Jesus. (2nd ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Keating, T. (1997). The kingdom of God is like…. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company.

Nonaka, I. (1991). The knowledge-creating company. Harvard Business Review, 69, 96-101.

Shillington, V. G. (Ed.). (1997). Jesus and His parables: Interpreting the parables of Jesus today. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark.

Walvoord, J. F., & Zuck, R. B. (Eds.). (1985). The Bible knowledge commentary: An exposition of the scriptures. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.

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